HRD Needs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

HRD Needs - Essay Example It maintains a state-of-the art website which provides customer interaction on a 24/7 basis. Recently, the organisation has signed a joint venture with a transportation and communication company whose business is also global. The company is still in its infant stage with respect to this new venture. The joint venture is a strategic move by the shareholders and stakeholders who have seen the progress and metamorphosis of the company, from a mere travel agency into a diverse and global organisation. However, the organisation is a consultant firm in terms of travel and tourism. The primary aim and objective of this organisation is to promote international tourism and provide assistance to international tourists, promote tourism in different countries, and guide travelers and tourists to the different tourist and scenic spots, heritage sites and other places of human interest around the world. The organisation has been doing this for the past several decades, and it can be said that they are the leading tourist experts. It has maintained a network of tourist agencies and guides involving individuals, groups and governments worldwide. Its network is unmatched and its database is a collection of years of experience coupled with a management style and organisational governance which have made it a giant in the travel and tourism business. Government leaders and renowned personalities look up to the organisation and usually consult the management in the subject of places and peoples of diverse cultures. 2. Outline: (a) how human resource needs are generally identified and assessed in your organisation; and (b) what HR development opportunities are normally available in your organization. (a) The first that our organization does periodically is to conduct needs assessment. Needs assessment is done every six months, but there are times that managers and key personnel request an immediate needs assessment when situation demands. First, a team is formed to conduct a needs assessment. The team is composed of a manager, who is the team leader appointed by the Board. The members of the team are key personnel and experienced employees of the organization. The needs assessment may last for a few days to a week, and they submit their recommendation to the Board. Needs assessment also answers the questions: What are these changes, and why are there changes inside the organisation? What trigger or motivate these changes that need to be addressed directly by the management? What kind of training is needed, and what kind of training is available? Without the needs assessment, the organisation cannot go on with the other objectives of training and development and other projects or activities for the organisation. The importance of needs assessment to the organisation can be seen in light of the following benefits: a. Needs assessment involves studies and surveys. The collected data and information naturally become a valuable contribution to the organisation and their evaluation and preservation for training, employee development or performance appraisal. b. Needs assessment constitutes a continuous process in the organisation. c. Needs assessment is a coping mechanism for change. d. It provides the organisation a clear view of what is going on, for instance, the problems of employees are known, and

History and Impact of Computing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

History and Impact of Computing - Essay Example Its formation was intrigued by the demand for work force by the 100th battalion war department. Recruitment of the military personnel involved both Americans and Japanese volunteers. Though 2100 Japanese were recruited, they felt that the unit that was created was a strategy by the white military to protect themselves. In addition, their reluctance to join the army was because the elegance forms required the Japanese to denounce their nationality. In regards to this, most Japanese youth felt that it was an insult to their emperor (Black, 2001). The Caucasians held the official position in the regiments. The group participated in several wars such as the wars at Luciana, Belvedere, and Livorno. The casualty percentage of Japanese-American units was rated at 314 percent. Recognition for the lost lives of the volunteers was made through awards for their courage and bravery in the battlefields. Just like the African-Americans dedication in the Second World War, President Truman honored t he Japanese-Americans for their devotion to wars in Italy and Southern France. The Armed Forces was desegregated in order to allow equality and fare enrolment. The success of the war was ascribed to role the Japanese Americans played. More importantly was the war against Japan where they acted as translators and interpreters. Their service in the Military Intelligence Service was manifested in their ability to capture Japanese secret communication thus making orders to Japanese officers and quick elucidations of their enemies’ military communication code. Their involvement was significantly felt at Saipan and Okinawa. They calmed down terrified civilians due to the terror threats that were propagated by their Japanese government. They also convinced some Japanese soldiers until they surrendered (Black, 2001). Despite the 442nd impeccable service that earned the rest of Japanese-soldiers respect, the West Coast perceptions of these soldiers were different from that accorded to the Americans soldiers. Though the 442nd regiment survivors had earned the country victory in the wars, they were reunited with their families who had been placed in isolation camps. Similarly, the Japanese war veterans were harshly treated in their homes. Their residents were constantly set a blaze or vandalized and most restaurants and local shops dined offering their services to them. Though some soldiers were disbanded from wars during Italy’s post-war occupation duty due to their Japanese ancestry, President Harry Truman honored their efforts by pinning the seventh Presidential Unit Citation on the 442nd unit’s color. The reactivation of 442nd regiment unit in Hawaii following its inactivation in Honolulu proved the unit as an organized reserve unit. The recent recognition of the Asian Pacific Americans veterans of the U.S Army Second World War was held on 21 day of June in 2000. The move was an effort towards correction of the racial prejudice that had character ized United States during WWII. In regards to this recognition, the 442nd Japanese infantry earned twenty-one medals. The American Navajo Code Talkers During World War II, which started from 1939 to1945, approximately 50,000 New Mexicans were involved in almost every assault the United States marine forces raged on areas such as Peleju, Tarawa, Iwo Jima, and Guadalcanal in the

Impact of international field experience on agricultural Education Article - 1

Impact of international field experience on agricultural Education - Article Example It is sometimes a manifestation of the human natural instinct to save one’s own race that leads to discrimination against international students in America. The international students coming to America are not disadvantageous to the country but rather they contribute to the economy, society and culture in many ways. So it is the prime duty of the country to protect the international students from bias, prejudice and discrimination. As Poyrazli, Thukral and Duru (2010) maintain â€Å"The international students face considerable difficulty in making new adjustments initially due to lack of social support, communication problems, and homesickness†. First and foremost, every educational institution in America should be bound legally to be answerable to the government regarding the mishandling of the international students. Secondly, as a protective measure, the government should give a chance to the international students to report to the institute regarding their experience in their new

Technology Project Essay Example for Free

Technology Project Essay Week 1: Begin thinking of a business problem that could be solved with a technology solution for a company or organization you are familiar with. Use the QA Forum to ask questions and discuss your ideas about the project. See the Course Project Technical Areas for ideas. Week 2: Complete the Course Project Proposal using this format: Course Project Proposal (1-2 pages, 75 points, due week 2, properly cite any external sources used) Cover page 1. Subject of Course Project 2. Business problem statement 3. Name of the company or organization 4. Brief description of proposed solution 5. General benefits it will provide the organization 6. Audience to whom you are presenting the recommendation(s) George Mason University hosts this youth-based program in which the primary goal is to increase motivation, achievement, and exposure to STEM content of students from urban public schools by having them work with scientists and experts to design and build educational games that can be utilized by other students and teachers. The project is a partnership between George Mason University and McKinley Technology High School in Washington, DC. It will include 100 high school students from McKinley and other high schools and 100 middle school students from urban schools. During the academic year the project proposes a 3-week gaming camp which meets four hours each day while the academic year activities include 24weeks of activities for three hours each week. The project introduces fundamental concepts of IT as students develop human animation, multimedia authoring and rapid game prototyping using 3D tools. The project will include hands-on, inquiry-based activities with a strong emphasis on non-traditional approaches to learning and the intensive use of information technologies such as: web-based programming, GIS, architecture, database management, motion capture, LAN network management. The project targets urban traditionally underrepresented students from the Washington, DC area with the vision of being a model for other distance learning efforts.

First Gov Analysis :: essays research papers

FIRSTGOV.COM VERSUS CANADA.COM I compared the United States FirstGov.Com portal page with our neighbor Canada’s government portal page. I first looked at firstgov.com to get a feel for the United States government page. When you first open http://www.firstgov.gov/ you immediately notice that there is an abundance of information. There are four main tabs set up as the main crux of the web page and those are: For Citizens, For Businesses and Non Profit, For Federal Employees, and Government to Government. Right off the bat renewing a drivers license and passport application is what jumped out to me personally. These were under the, â€Å"Citizens Get It Done† heading. Also, under this heading were links that direct you to e-filing taxes, checking immigration status, governmental benefits, government job application procedures, changing your address, and even shopping at government auctions. At mid page on the For Citizens tab was a section entitled, information by topics. There are 14 main topics and when you click on one of them it sends you to another link that has numerous other topics that a user can click on for almost any kind of information you can imagine. For example: I clicked on Education and Jobs topic. Under the topic is brief information on what you can find such as employment, training, careers, labor, wages, workplace, online learning, schools, student and teacher resources...This led me to a page that has well over 70 links to other topics. A few examples here are : US Dept of Labor, US Dept of Education, College Search, Disability Information, Career Choices, Labor Relations, and many more subjects to look up. Each of these links takes you to other pages full of related information with more links to follow.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What I found interesting also was you can read this web site in almost any language. I clicked on Spanish and the entire web page converted to Spanish. Also on the left hand side of the home page is a small index with links entitled: A-Z agency index, Federal Executive, Federal Legislature, Federal Judicial, Cross agency portals, state government, local government, and tribunal government. I chose to look at Federal Legislature and that takes to a page where you can find out information on the US Senate, US House of Representative, and agencies that support Congress. An abundance of information in all areas in the index.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   When you go to Canada’s web site, http://www.

Non Hormonal Methods Of Contraception Health And Social Care Essay

The planetary human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) pandemic is progressively going a load of the female population. HIV is preponderantly acquired through heterosexual transmittal and in many parts of the universe, HIV prevalence and incidence rates are higher among adult females than work forces ( Daly et al 1994 ) . At the terminal of 2007, an estimated 15.4 million adult females were infected with HIV, most of them being of fertile age ( Heikinheimo and Lahteenmaki 2008 ) . Importantly, immature adult females aged 15-24 have a 4- to 7-fold increased hazard of going infected with HIV, when compared with immature work forces of the same age ( Simon et al. , 2006 ) . The demographics and paths of infection vary harmonizing to the stage of the HIV epidemic ( Beyrer, 2007 ) . Womans with HIV infection may wish to be after gestation to restrict their household or avoid gestation. The pick of contraceptive method in people populating with HIV is constrained by the demand to forestall bot h sexual transmittal of HIV and unwanted gestations. Correct usage of most user dependant methods requires a basic cognition of reproduction and literacy accomplishments to follow written instructions. Double map preventives that at the same time prevent HIV transmittal every bit good as unwanted gestations might be the most appropriate prophylactic method for adult females populating with HIV and AIDS ( Kakaire et al, 2010 ) .Main BodyThe human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) is a retrovirus belonging to the household of lentiviruses. Retroviruss can utilize their RNA and host Deoxyribonucleic acid to do viral DNA and are known for their long incubation periods. Like other retroviruses, HIV infects the organic structure, has a long incubation period or clinical latency, and finally causes the marks and symptoms of disease. HIV causes terrible harm to the immune system and finally destroys it by utilizing the Deoxyribonucleic acid of CD4+ cells to retroflex itself. In that procedure, the virus finally destroys the CD4+ cells ( Calles et al. 2010 ) . There are two types of human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV-1 and HIV-2 ) , which each evolved from a different simian immunodeficiency virus ( SIV ) . Both viruses emerged in the late twentieth century. In contrast to the SIV ‘s, which appear non to harm their natural archpriest hosts. HIV infection amendss the immune system, go forthing the organic structure susceptible to infection with a broad scope of bacteriums, viruses, Fungis, and Protozoa ( Calles et al. 2010 ) . Surveies have shown dramatic similarities but besides of import differences between HIV-1 and HIV-2. They have the same manners of transmittal and are associated with the same timeserving infections, but HIV-2appears to come on at a slower rate ( CDC ) . HIV-1 is much more prevailing than HIV-2. It is HIV-1 that is mostly responsible for the AIDS pandemic, while HIV-2 is chiefly restricted to West Africa. Now, in each twelvemonth of the early twenty-first century there are about 5 million new HIV infections, and about 3 million deceases from AIDS, which has become the 4th biggest cause of mortality in the universe ( Carter and Saunders 2007 ) . HIV-1 infection is characterized by an insidious impairment of the cellular immune system ( Vergis and Mellors 2000 ) . Both the measure and proportion of plasma CD4+ T-cells lessening steadily over a period of old ages to decennaries, and this progressive loss of CD4+ T-cells is associated with the development of AIDS in septic persons. The grade of immunodeficiency associated with HIV-1 infection, as defined by the oncoming of timeserving diseases, correlatives closely with plasma CD4+ T-cell counts ( Calles et al. 2010 ) . HIV ‘s Life Cycle Host cells infected with HIV have a sawed-off life span as a consequence of the virus ‘s utilizing them as â€Å" mills † to bring forth multiple transcripts of new HIV. Thus, HIV continuously uses new host cells to retroflex itself. Equally many as 10 million to 10 billion virions ( single viruses ) are produced day-to-day. In the first 24 H after exposure, HIV onslaughts or is captured by dendritic cells in the mucose membranes and tegument. Within 5 yearss after exposure, these septic cells make their manner to the lymph nodes and finally to the peripheral blood, where viral reproduction becomes rapid. CD4+ lymphocytes that are recruited to react to viral antigen migrate to the lymph nodes. These become activated and so proliferate via complex interaction of cytokines released in the microenvironment of the lymph nodes. This sequence of events makes the CD4+ cells more susceptible to HIV infection, and it explains the generalised lymphadenopath y feature of the acute retroviral syndrome seen in grownups and striplings. In contrast, HIV-infected monocytes allow viral reproduction but resist violent death. Therefore, monocytes act as reservoirs of HIV and as effecters of tissue harm in variety meats such as the encephalon ( Calles et al. 2010 ) . The HIV life rhythm includes six stages harmonizing to Calles et Al. ( 2010 ) binding and entry, rearward written text, integrating, reproduction, budding, and ripening ( Figure 1. Appendix 2. ) . Binding and Entry, the envelope proteins gp120 and gp41 bind to CD4+ cell receptors and co-receptors on the exterior of CD4+ cells and macrophages. The chemokine receptors CCR5 and CXCR4 facilitate viral entry. T-cell tropic viruses require CXCR4 to adhere, and macrotropic strains of the virus require CCR5. R5 is the most common virus transmitted during acute infection, and subsequently during infection X4 is the virus that is most common. The presence of a homozygous inactive mutant of the CCR5 allelomorph has caused opposition to infection by the R5 virus. The connection of the proteins and the receptors and co-receptors fuses the HIV membrane with the CD4+ cell membrane, and the virus enters the CD4+ cell and macrophage. The HIV membrane and the envelope proteins remain outside of the CD 4+ cell, whereas the nucleus of the virus enters the CD4+ cell. CD4+ cell enzymes interact with the viral nucleus and excite the release of viral RNA and the viral enzymes rearward RNA polymerase, integrase, and peptidase. The HIV RNA must be converted to DNA before it can be incorporated into the Deoxyribonucleic acid of the CD4+ cell. This incorporation must happen for the virus to multiply. The transition of HIV RNA to DNA is known as contrary written text and is mediated by the HIV enzyme contrary RNA polymerase. The consequence is the production of a individual strand of Deoxyribonucleic acid from the viral RNA. The individual strand of this new DNA so undergoes reproduction into dual isolated HIV DNA. Once rearward written text has occurred, the viral DNA can come in the karyon of the CD4+ cell. The viral enzyme integrase so inserts the viral DNA into the CD4+ cell ‘s Deoxyribonucleic acid. This procedure is known as integrating. The CD4+ cell has now been changed into a mill used to bring forth more HIV. The new DNA, which has been formed by the integrating of the viral DNA into the CD4+ cell, causes the production of courier Deoxyribonucleic acid that initiates the synthesis of HIV protei ns ( Calles et al. 2010 ) . The HIV proteins and viral RNA, all the constituents needed to do a new virus, gather at the CD4+ cell membrane to organize new viruses. These new viruses push through the different parts of the cell wall by budding. Many viruses can force through the wall of one CD4+ cell. These new viruses leave the CD4+ cell and contain all the constituents necessary to infect other CD4+ cells. The new virus has all the constituents necessary to infect other CD4+ cells but can non make so until it has matured. During this procedure, the HIV peptidase enzyme cuts the long HIV proteins of the virus into smaller functional units that so reassemble to organize a mature virus. The virus undergone the procedure of ripening and is now ready to infect other cells ( Calles et al. 2010 ) . Safe and effectual methods of contraceptive method represent a critical constituent of preventative wellness attention cut downing maternal and infant mortality ; particularly in adult females populating in resource-limited scenes ( Zdenek et al. 2010 ) here is broad fluctuation in contraceptive method prevalence worldwide runing from 8 % of adult females aged 15-49 old ages in western Africa up to 78 % in northern Europe. Female sterilization ( 32 % ) , intrauterine devices ( 22 % ) , and the unwritten preventive pill ( 14 % ) history for more than two tierces of all prophylactic pattern worldwide.4 In less developed states 70 % of contraceptive method users rely on female sterilization and intrauterine devices in portion because they are advocated by health care services as a consequence of cost effectivity in footings of gestation bar and service proviso ( UNPD, 2001 ) . Non-Hormonal Methods of Contraception A high grade of protection against HIV sexual transmittal is provided by consistent correct rubber usage ( Davis and Weller 1999 ) ; inconsistent or incorrect usage is non protective. Most planetary HIV transmittal occurs because rubbers are non used at all during sexual intercourse ( Steiner and Cates 1999 ) .Condom accidents are reported by 1-12 % of users and the method prophylactic failure rate is at least 12 % ( Trussel et al. 1992 ) . Double protection, the coincident usage of an effectual contraceptive method method with consistent rubber usage, has been advocated to cut down the hazard of unplanned gestation, horizontal transmittal of HIV to a non-infected spouse, transmittal of immune virus to an spouse with HIV infection, and the hazard of acquisition of other STIs including high hazard human papillomavirus ( HPV ) types ( UNDP/UNFPA/WHO 2002 ) . Male rubbers are the lone means proven to significantly cut down the hazard of HIV transmittal in heterosexual intercourse ( Cates 2005 ) . Harmonizing to a recent Cochrane reappraisal, consistent usage of male rubbers consequences in 80 % decrease in the hazard of HIV transmittal among HIV-serodiscordant twosomes ( Weller and Davis-Beaty, 2002 ) .The female rubber is a polyurethane sheath with two flexible rings at each terminal ; one ring is inserted into the upper vagina and the other covers the introitus. The female rubber is less likely than male rubbers to leak or interrupt during sex, but invasion of the outer pealing into the vagina is reported in 2 % of copulatory episodes. The cumulative chance of vaginal exposure to seeds with female rubber usage has been estimated as 3 % , compared to 11.6 % with the male rubber. The prophylactic failure rate is estimated at 5-21 % over 12 months ( Daly et al. 1994 ) . Consistent usage of rubber was associated with holding one spouse, greater income, no illicit drug usage and when rubbers were the lone preventive method used ( Wilson et al. 1999 ) .Women who besides use, effectual or long term methods of contraceptive method are less likely to describe consistent rubber usage ( Magalhaes et al. 2002 ) . Condom usage is besides related to whether the adult female has informed her spouse of her position ( DesgreA?es-du-LouE†  et al. 2002 ) less consistent usage is reported by concordant twosomes ( Clark et al. 1997 ) , even within discordant partnerships consistent rubber usage is reported by merely about 50 % twosomes ( Allen et al. 2003 ) .Obstacles to greater usage of male rubbers include deficiency of handiness, fright of being perceived as holding multiple spouses and being unfaithful to a regular spouse, resistance on spiritual evidences, and male laterality in determination devising ( UNDP/UNFPA/WHO, 2002 ) . Women populating with HIV inf ection may experience unable to unwrap their HIV position and negotiate rubber usage with new sexual spouses for fright of forsaking, domestic force, loss of economic support, and societal isolation. The issues around female rubber usage are besides negociating barrier method usage, ( Kalichman et al.2000 ) method acceptableness by users, and higher cost compared with the male rubber. The WHO audience on reuse suggested that female rubbers still run into fabrication quality appraisal specifications after seven rhythms of bleach disinfections, rinsing, drying, and relubrication. This protocol has non been evaluated for safety and efficaciousness in human usage and the WHO does non urge or advance reuse of female rubbers and is presently patronizing research to measure reuse protocols under local conditions ( WHO, 2002 ) . Furthermore, stop and vimules cover the neck and parts of the vaginal wall, while caps cover merely the neck. Their usage in discordant twosomes is non recommended, as a comparatively big country of vaginal mucous membrane remains exposed, micro injury during interpolation, and the accompaniment usage of nonoxynol-9 spermatocide may do epithelial break and increase viral transmittal hazard to the male spouse ( Carlin and Boag 1995 ) . Nonoxynol-9 ( N-9 ) spermatocide provides no protection against sexually familial infections including HIV ( Wilkinson et al. 2002 ) and frequent usage increases the hazard of HIV acquisition ( Van Damme et Al. 2002 ) . WHO Contraceptive Research and Development ( CONRAD ) proficient audience concluded that N-9 should non be used or promoted for the bar of HIV in adult females at high hazard of infection ( WHO 2001 ) . There are no published surveies on the female-male transmittal hazard with N-9 usage by adult females with HIV infection. It seems advis able for adult females with HIV infection with discordant sexual spouse to avoid N-9 spermicidal entirely or with other prophylactic methods to cut down the possible hazard of HIV sexual transmittal. There is no grounds that rubbers lubricated with N-9 are more effectual in forestalling gestation than rubbers lubricated with silicone. However, where pick is limited it is better to utilize any rubber than no rubber at all. In the hereafter, effectual and acceptable micro biocides may hold a function, supplying HIV positive adult females unable to negociate consistent rubber usage with a discordant spouse with an extra method to cut down sexual transmittal. HORMONAL METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION The combined unwritten preventive ( COC ) pill is an effectual user dependent contraceptive method with the non-contraceptive benefits of rhythm control, decrease in hypermenorrhea and dysmenorrhoea. Absorption can be affected by drawn-out intercurrent diarrhea and emesis. The COC is metabolised by the liver and its usage is contraindicated in adult females with unnatural liver map, which may be caused by intoxicant maltreatment, ague or chronic viral hepatitis, and inauspicious events on antiretroviral combinations. These factors are peculiarly relevant when doing contraceptive method picks for HIV positive adult females who are current or old shooting drug users with chronic active hepatitis C infection. Current drug users frequently have a helter-skelter life style that precludes effectual usage of user dependent contraceptive method methods ( Mitchell and Stephens, 2004 ) . Progestogen ( POP ) merely pills methods may be used by adult females with contraindications to estrogen usage. The POP is an effectual preventive method with right and consistent usage ; ovulation is non inhibited in all users, and inconsistent usage can ensue in gestation. A new progestin merely pill, Cerazette, which contains 75 milligram desogestrel, has late been introduced. In surveies Cerazette inhibited ovulation in97 % of rhythms at 7 and 12 months after induction ; this would propose enhanced efficaciousness in comparing with conventional POPs, though as yet unconfirmed by comparative tests ( Mitchelle and Stephens, 2004 ) . Under the long playing progestin merely contraceptive method, depot Provera ethanoate ( DMPA ) 150 milligram is given by deep intramuscular injection at 12 hebdomadal intervals and norethisterone oenanthate ( Noristerat ) 200 mg every8 hebdomads. These methods have the advantage of non being intercourse related but require regular entree to wellness attention for repetition injections. Likewise, implants need to be inserted by a trained wellness professional. Implanon is effectual for 3 old ages, and Jadelle for 5 old ages ( non licensed in the United Kingdom ) ; both are extremely effectual, non-user dependant, and reversible methods of progestin merely contraceptive method. Harmonizing to Mitchell and Stephens ( 2004 ) , factors impacting contraceptive method pick for HIV positive adult females are influence by the state of abode, the handiness of methods, entree to healthcare services, and cost.Religious, cultural, and personal beliefs of the function of adult female in society, acceptableness to spouse, effects on menses. Subsequent is the HIV position of adult female that involves the CD4 count, viral burden and physical well-being. Furthermore HIV serostatus, indefinite spouse concordant and discordant. Then catamenial, sexual, and generative history consist of hypermenorrhea, dysmenorrhoea, past pelvic infection, past ectopic gestation, gestation planning. In add-on the medical history findings like unnatural liver map, past history of venous thromboembolic disease, high blood pressure, lipemia, and current drug maltreatment. Finally the medicines causes such as, enzyme inducers, antibiotics, teratogenic agents. In the survey of ‘contraception among individuals populating HIV with infection go toing an HIV attention and support Centre in Kabale, Uganda ‘ by Kakaire et Al. ( 2010 ) shows that factors independently associated with prophylactic usage were degree of instruction and whether respondent has changed spouses since HIV diagnosing. Contraception usage and conformity is related to the scope of methods available, patient pick, prevailing wellness and spiritual beliefs, perceptual experiences of method effectivity, and side effects ( for illustration, adult females may hold less tolerance for heavy and drawn-out vaginal hemorrhage than amenorrhea ( Playle 2000 ) . Correct usage of most user dependant methods requires a basic cognition of reproduction and literacy accomplishments to follow written instructions. In Gazmararian et Al, ( 1999 ) many states adult females are unable to do independent determinations about their sexual and generative wellness because of political inst ability within society, deficiency of economic independency, and predominating cultural or spiritual attitudes to adult females ‘s rights. The Government ‘s 2001 National Strategy for Sexual Health and HIV outlined policies to cut down degrees of insecure sex, new HIV diagnosings, and undiagnosed HIV by 2007, via puting in bar, bettering outreach services, co-ordinating enterprises and widening information runs. A cardinal mark for a 25 % lessening in freshly acquired HIV infections by 2007 was non met ; new diagnosings have increased significantly. The US Department of Health ( 2009 ) argues that other marks were achieved ; HIV proving increased and clinic waiting times declined. A policy briefing high spots the crisis in presenting just wellness attention for people populating with HIV and AIDS, and the overpowering load it places on adult females and misss. HIV and AIDS have brought an increased demand for community and home-based attention. Due to traditional gender norms and unequal gender dealingss it is the adult females and misss in the communities who are the primary health professionals, whilst perchance being HIV positive, and frequently needing attention themselves.DecisionAt this point in the AIDS epidemic, the bar of the heterosexual transmittal of HIV is of paramount importance ( Daly et al. 1994 ) . Women all over the universe are at hazard for HIV, even within matrimonial relationships. Sing that preventive usage is being promoted worldwide, including in countries where HIV incidences increasing, farther cognition sing the consequence of single preventives on HIV transmittal is imperative. Development and proviso of safe, effectual, low-cost a nd acceptable contraceptive method for adult females at hazard of HIV and those populating with HIV/AIDS is one of the major challenges of generative medical specialty. Currently, consistent usage of male rubbers is the lone proven means to cut down the hazard of HIV transmittal in heterosexual intercourse. All the available reversible prophylactic methods-OCs, prophylactic injections and IUDs-can by and large be used both by adult females at hazard of HIV infection and by HIV-infected adult females. An ideal preventive scheme for adult females at hazard of HIV infection would supply coincident protection against both unintended gestation and HIV acquisition. Word Count: 3,029Appendix 1Mention Lists:Allen, S. , Meinzen-Derr, J.and Kautzman, M. ( 2003 ) . Sexual behavior of HIV discordant twosomes after HIV guidance and testing. AIDS, vol.17, p. 733-740. Beyrer, C. ( 2007 ) . HIV epidemiology update and transmittal factors: hazard and hazard contexts-16th International AIDS Conference Epidemiology Plenary. Clin Infect Dis, vol. 44, p. 981-987. DesgreA?es-du-LouE†  , A. , Msellati, P. and Viho, I. ( 2002 ) . Contraceptive usage, protected sexual intercourse and incidence of gestations among African HIV-infected adult females. DITRAME ANRS 049 Project, Abidjan 1995-2000. Int J STD AIDS, vol. 13, p. 462-468. Calles, N. , Evans, D. and Terlonge, DL. ( 2010 ) . PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF THE HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS. HIV Curriculum for the Health Professional, p. 7-14.http: //bayloraids.org/curriculum/files/2.pdf. Carlin, E.M. and Boag, F.C. ( 1995 ) . Women, contraceptive method and STDs including HIV. International Journal of STD and AIDS, vol. 6, p. 373-386. Carter, J.B. and Saunders, V. A. ( 2007 ) .Virology: rules and applications. England: John Wiley and Sons Ltd. Cates, W. ( 2005 ) .Review of non-hormonal contraceptive method ( rubbers, intrauterine devices, nonoxynol-9 and jazz bands ) on HIV acquisition. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, vol.38, sup.1, s8-10. Clark, R.A. , Kissinger, P. and Bedimo, A. ( 1997 ) . Determination of factors associated with rubber usage among adult females infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Int J STD AIDS, vol.8, p. 229-233. Centers for Disease Control. ( 1998 ) . National Center for HIV, STD, and TB Prevention, Division Of HIV/AIDS Prevention: A Human immune lack virus type 2. Daly, C.C. , Helling-Giese, G.E. and Mati, J.K. ( 1994 ) . Contraceptive methods and the transmittal of HIV: deductions for household planning. Genitourinary Medicine, vol. 70, p. 110-117. Davis, K. and Weller, S. ( 1999 ) . The Effectiveness of Condoms in cut downing heterosexual transmittal of HIV. Family Planning Perspectives, vol.31, p. 272-279. Gazmararian, J.A. , Parker, R.M. and Baker, D.W. ( 1999 ) . Reading accomplishments and household planning cognition and patterns in a low-income managed-care population. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, vol.93, p.239-244. Heikinheimo, O. and LaA?hteenmaA?ki, P. ( 2008 ) . Contraception and HIV Infection in Women. Human Reproduction Update, vol.15, no.2, p. 165-176. Kalichman, S.C. , Rompa, D. , and Cage, M. ( 2000 ) . Factors associated with female rubber usage among HIV-seropositive adult females. Int J STD AIDS, vol.11, p.798-803. Kakaire, O. , Kaye, D.K. and Osinde, M.O. ( 2010 ) . Contraception among individuals populating HIV with infection go toing an HIV attention and support Centre in Kabale, Uganda. Journal of Public Health and Epidemiology, vol. 2, issue 8, p. 180-188. Magalhaes, J. , Amaral, E. and Giraldo, P.C. ( 2002 ) . HIV Infection in adult females: impact on contraceptive method. Contraception, vol. 66, p. 87-91. Mitchell, H. S. and Stephens, E. ( 2004 ) .Contraception pick for HIV positive adult females. Sexual activity Transm Infect, vol. 80, p.167-173. Playle, J.F. ( 2000 ) . Concepts of conformity: apprehensions and attacks. British Journal of Family Planing, vol.26, p.213-19. Simon, V. , Ho, D. and Karim, Q. ( 2006 ) . HIV/AIDS epidemiology, pathogenesis, bar, and intervention. Lancet, vol. 358, p. 489-504. Steiner, M.J. and Cates, W. ( 1999 ) . The existent job with male rubbers is non-use. Sexually Familial Diseases, vol. 26, p. 459-462. Trussel, J. , Warner, D.L. and Hatcher, R.A. ( 1992 ) . Condom slippage and breakage rates. Family Planing Positions, vol.24, p. 20-23. UNDP/UNFPA/WHO/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction, Department of Reproductive Health and Research, WHO. ( 2002 ) .HIV/AIDS makes double protection a must. Progress in Reproductive Health Research Quarterly Newsletter, no 59. United Nations Population Division Statistics Department of Economic and Social Affairs. ( 2001 ) .World preventive usage. Van Damme, L. , Ramjee, G. and Alary, M. ( 2002 ) . Effectiveness of COL-1492, anonoxynol-9 vaginal gel, on HIV-1 transmittal in female sex workers: A randomized controlled test. Lancet, vol. 360, p. 971-977. Vergis, E.N. and Mellors, J.W. ( 2000 ) .A Natural history of HIV-1 infection. Infect Dis Clin North Am, A vol. 14, issue 4, p. 809-825.A Weller, S.C. and Davis-Beaty, K. ( 2002 ) . Condom effectivity in cut downing heterosexual HIV transmittal. Cochrane Database Systematic Reviews, issue 1, p.1-22. Wilkinson, D. , Tholandi, M. and Ramjee, G. ( 2002 ) . Nonoxynol-9 spermatocide for bar of vaginally acquired HIV and other sexually familial infections: systematic reappraisal and meta-analysis of randomised controlled tests including more than 5000 adult females. Lancet Infect Dis, vol, 2, p. 613-617. Wilson, T. , Massad, L.S. and Riester, K.A. ( 1999 ) . Sexual, prophylactic, and drug usage behavior of adult females with HIV and those at high hazard for infection: consequences from the Women ‘s Interagency HIV Study. AIDS, vol. 13, p. 591-598. WHO/CONRAD Technical Consultation on Nonoxynol-9. ( 2001 ) .Geneva, Summary Report. WHO. ( 2002 ) . Information update: considerations sing the reuse of the female rubber, ( www.who.int/reproductive-health/rtis/reuse.en.html ) . Zdenek Hel, Z. , Stringer, E. and Mestecky, J. ( 2010 ) . Sexual activity Steroid Hormones, Hormonal Contraception, and the Immunobiology of Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 Infection. Endocrine Reviews, vol.31 ( 1 ) , p.79-9.

Educational Inequality Essay

All through history of America education has served very crucially in both the political and economic needs. The goals of education in America include: all children have access toll start school ready to learn, 90 percent increase in High school graduates, development of graduates who demonstrate competency in various areas, create a lead in mathematics and science achievement in the world, literacy among all the adults and possession of the knowledge and skills essential to strive in a global economy and exercise the rights and duties of citizenship, schools free of substance abuse, and full of discipline, access to professional equipping programs and lastly promotion of partnerships in schools that will intensify the parental participation in the whole dimension of the children . The US established an Act of Parliament in 2001 known as The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) that aims at bringing reforms in the education system. It aims in maintaining high standards and strategies in order to improve education system and eliminate the educational inequality. Education dates many eras back in history and quite surprisingly so do education inequality. Educational inequality refers to the nonexistence of equal chances that individuals have as a result of differences in quality education among other factors. Generally in America and the entire world a variety of educational inequalities exist. The imbalances continue along socioeconomic and cultural lines. Research shows that slightly in the across the world more than one billion adults illiterate. The United Nations indicates that of these one billion uneducated grown-ups more than 2/3rds are women. Further it shows that the fourth grade learners who grow up in lesser, low-income societies are already about three grade levels behind their peers in high-income societies (TFA, 2008). By the time these students are 18 they have not yet completed in their high school, with only a ratio of one is to ten. These educational imbalances dishonorably limit the life scenarios of the children who grow up in poor societies who are over 13 million children. The disparities incline inexplicably affect minority groups comprising African-American, Latino/Hispanic, and Native American children, who are three times as probable to live in low-income regions (TFA, 2008). Children in low-income societies and areas in the world regularly face trials such as underprivileged healthcare, nourishment, and insufficient housing. While their counterparts enjoy concerted cultivation, exposure to the information and resources, better nutrition and recreation facilities all of which are important in better performance. Schools and school systems time and again lack the same resources to encounter and cope with the students’ full potential. Various factors are precursors of inequality, and on the other hand education inequality becomes a factor in propagation of the factors themselves, these include economic, social, political, technological and cultural influences and the education system, delivery of education etc. The factors can either be endogenous or exogenous: either external or factors within the education system itself that cause inequality: nonexistence of schooling facilities, poor administrative environment of the school-system. Absenteeism, truancy, low attainment in school and dropouts are several of the outcomes of pitiable structural environment of school-system. Segregation has been named as the greatest cause of inequality. Segregation actually means stratification or classification of people in a society due to a predominant attribute they possess. Racial, gender, social, economic segregation among others have an adverse effect on education. The discrimination that arises hinders people from accessing better and desired education. In the history of America the inequality of education has existed in regard to race, gender and sociocultural and economic factors. Through the transitory of slavery, equality of education was one of the rights that were formerly withdrawn from the Black people. The grant of equality was a factor that would help in social integration attainment. Its over one hundred and twenty years but still the black children have not really achieved the amount of financial success White children have in life after school. The objective of education is to reserve the present class structure. Ever since the eradication of servitude, racist whites have used the educational classification to retain their sovereignties and to preserve blacks unfortunate. Philosophies of marginal subservience are spread, and the misrepresented fall into the trap of believing that race defines astuteness, by means of lopsided test statistics to aid back their thoughts. Ranking in social achievement simulations adopt social movement in an exposed challenge, based on distinction as measured by years of schooling and practical capability. This open challenge assumes an identical rudimentary education. The Supreme Court governed that â€Å"separate but equal† schools were unauthorized, those who would avert incorporation had to find new methods to negate this elementary education. This is so equivalent to tracking where by children are separated in terms of their social classes. Various sociological schools of thoughts have arisen to explain this phenomenon. Some of the dominant include the functionalist theory; this paradigm aims in delineating the functions of education and asserts that education serves the requirements of the society. In its manifest form education communicates elementary knowledge and skills across generations and on the other hand it socializes people into the society’s mainstream through its latent aims: the â€Å"moral education,† which helped forms a more-cohesive social arrangement by bringing together people from assorted backgrounds. It echoes the historical apprehension of â€Å"Americanizing† settlers. This theory was formulated by Emile Durkheim and has since been advanced by other scholars. Functionalists argue that other underlying roles of education are such as transmission of core values and social control. Functionalist hold that education serves the purpose of socializing individuals to learn the social norms, beliefs, knowledge, attitudes and values that they will require as industrious citizens at the different (unequal) levels of society this is achieved mainly through â€Å"the hidden curriculum†, at the same time education sorts and rank persons for engagement in the labor market, individuals who achievement highly are trained for the most important jobs and in recompense, earn very high incomes. Thereby the most capable individuals get the greatly aspired occupations. The sensibly constructed educational goals and curriculum assists in develop identities and self-esteem. However, Sennet and Cobb (2005) cites that to have confidence that aptitude single-handedly determines who is to be rewarded is unfounded. Meighan concurs, adding that a majority of in dividuals who are capable of performing but are limited by their working class background fail to achieve the status they deserve limited by the cultural experiences and deprivations. The cycle persists with schooling backing continuity, which in turn maintains social order. Lucas, 2009 supposed that this progression, whereby some schoolchildren were named and labeled educational failures, is an essential activity which education as a part of the social system, performed for the whole and smooth functioning of the society. Another model called the conflict theory maintains that the function of education is to continue with the social inequality and maintain the power of the powerful in the society. Conflict theorists scrutinize the identical purposes of education as functionalists. However the functionalists view education inequality as a advantageous contribution to an ordered society and that helps maintains the social order while the conflict theorists perspective is that the educational system is a system that propagates the status quo by stultifying the lower classes into being submissive workers. They together concur that the educational system practices sor ting, but they disagree about how it enacts that sorting. Functionalist’s prerogative that schools categorize centered upon distinction; conflict theorists contend that schools classify along distinctive class and ethnic lines. Conflict theorists hold that, schools train those in the working classes to accept their position as a lower-class member of society. The conflicts identify several factors to defend their position: property taxes finance most schools this therefore means affluent districts have more money hence better funded schools. They can have enough money to pay greater wages, appealing to more professional teachers, and newer texts books and more technology. This therefore translates to better performance and development of more able students. Symbolic interactionists is yet another theoretical approach in explaining education inequality, symbolic interactionists say that society is conceivable since people have the capability to converse with one another by means of symbols. Further they add that people act toward others, objects, and events on the foundation of the connotations we convey to them. Subsequently, we experience and understand the world as a constructed- created reality. On educa tion they restrict their examination to what we directly observe happening in the schools. Additionally they lay a focus on how educators anticipations stimulates student performance, observations, and attitudes. Additionally researchers across the globe have come up with more theoretical methodologies to elucidate developments in educational inequality: the theory of industrialization, reproduction theories, MMI and EMI. theory of industrialization give its explanations on educational inequality that with increase with industrialization and modernization there would be decline in inequality in the education sector and as a result other sectors e.g. income distribution and resource allocation. As an outcome of economic, institutional, and cultural transformation, arising from improved technology and innovations, greater sections of the countries inhabitants will benefit, thereby reducing the factors that increase inequality. The theory asserts that access to education, and their educational achievement would be progressively rely on merit rather than cultural and economic background. Reproduction theories state that the inequality is a making of the education system; this can be simply inferr ed to mean that the systems are structured to reproduce the unequal social structure. Stratification in the society will continue even if the education enlarges because the powerful figures will continue to make strategies that maintain this benefit. Therefore there will forever be an intergenerational sinuousness of inequality. Maximally maintained inequality (MMI) cites the educational system expansion doesn’t specifically major on lower class but all the students, this theory was formulated in an attempt to answer why educational development and egalitarian transformations do not decrease educational disparity among socioeconomic divisions. Relative risk aversion (RRA) proposes larger disparity lessening is probable and is subject to altering costs and customs. Effectively maintained inequality (EMI) proposes that significant inequality decrease in equality is indescribable since qualitatively diverse categories of education preserve far-reaching inequality, even at collective conversions. When inundation is attained at a specific level and inequity in realization degenerates, quantifiable inequity may be swapped by qualitative. This means that upper classes will be better equipped. Concentrating on tracking, EMI openly deliberates the established administration of diverse educational systems, thus accentuating the importance of including the institutional facet. Theorists and researchers agree that the inequality in education is as a result of segregation and class differences more specifically brought about by income-economic factors. If the bridge in student achievement is to be crossed policies that emphasize inequality elimination and new initiatives have to be developed. The structure and the process of schooling should also be taken into consideration to achieve better performance. Reduction of race and sociocultural discrimination also will go a long way in improving the state of education in America. The state commitment to policies that ensure equal distribution of the resources and inception of programs that are aimed at improving the welfare of the people should be adopted.

With specific reference to the EU’s doctrine of direct effect, critically assess the extent to which EU law concerning commercial activities are enforceable within member states. The WritePass Journal

With specific reference to the EU’s doctrine of direct effect, critically assess the extent to which EU law concerning commercial activities are enforceable within member states. Introduction With specific reference to the EU’s doctrine of direct effect, critically assess the extent to which EU law concerning commercial activities are enforceable within member states. : 115). This rendered Art 101 exorbitant and demonstrated the need for courts to apply it more rigidly (Bright, 1996: 535). Three categories of exemptions now apply to Art 101, namely; 1) commercial activities that are beneficial to consumers; 2) agreements of minor importance, and 3) block exemptions for different types of contract, such as vertical agreements (Bright, 1996: 535). As a result of these exemptions, the extent to which Art 101 is enforceable within member states is unclear and it is likely that consumers and businesses will have difficulty demonstrating that certain commercial activities fall within the ambit of this Article and subsequently invoking EU law against a private individual. EU competition law does not intend to stand in the way of legitimate commercial activities, but to instead promote and maintain fair competition within nation states (Europa, 2013: 1). Whilst this is often deemed necessary to prevent unfairness and to regulate anti-competitive conduct, unnecessary restraints are capable of being placed upon commercial activities (Rodger, et al; 2009: 103). Arguably, it is imperative that some exemptions do exist so that the application of Article 101 is not exorbitant. This ensures that any positive benefits stemming from an agreement are balanced against the restrictions that apply to Art 101. Article 102 TFEU is primarily aimed at preventing those undertakings who hold a dominant position in the market. Through the principle of direct effect, individuals will be capable of invoking this Article by showing that an undertaking who holds a dominant position in the market has abused its position as highlighted in Case 27/76, United Brands Continental BV v Commission (1978) ECR 207. Such abuse may include; unfair purchase selling prices, unfair trading conditions, restricting production and applying different provisions to similar transactions (Kennedy, 2011: 237). A degree of uncertainty surrounds the scope of Art 102 because of how serious a finding of infringement would be, which renders the extent to which Art 102 is being enforced in member states unclear. For a firm to be dominant, it is not necessary for there to exist no competition at all and instead it merely needs to be shown, as identified in Case 85/76 Hoffman-La Roche v Commission [1979] ECR 461, Â  that the firm has an appreciable influence on the conditions under which the competition develops. It is likely to be extremely difficult for a private individual to establish that a firm has an appreciable influence on the conditions under which the competition develops and as such it is again questionable how far Art 102 will go in protecting private individuals and businesses through the principle of direct effect. Regulations are also subject to direct effect, meaning that they will be directly applicable in all EU member states, as provided for by Art 288 (ex Art 247 TEC). This w as illustrated in Case C-253/00 Munoz [2002] ECR I-7289 when it was stated that regulations operate to confer rights on individuals which the national courts have a duty to protect. EU decisions and Directives are also directly effective in member states, as signified in Foster v British Gas (1990) C-188/89. This case exemplified the courts willingness to confer horizontal direct effect upon individuals and signified how EU law concerning commercial activities are enforceable within member states. Conclusion Overall, whilst there are some restrictions in place to regulate the application of EU law, it is evident that many EU rules and regulations will be capable of being enforced within all member states. This is necessary when it comes to commercial activities as it is important that some form of protection exists to prevent the market from being abused. The extent to which EU law applies will always be subject to some controversy because of the fact that certain exceptions will apply. Though this is necessary in preventing abuse and ensuring that a balance is being maintained. The extent to which this balance is achieved is likely to be open to much debate though it is evident that member states have made some attempt to invoke EU law provisions concerning commercial activities. References Bright, C. (1996) EU Competition Policy: Rules, Objectives and Deregulation Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, Volume 16, Issue 4, 535-559. Dashwood, A. (2008) The Principle of Direct Effect in European Community Law, Journal of Common Market Studies, Volume 16, Issue 3, 229-245. Â   Europa. (2013) 50 Years of Direct Effect of EU Law Benefitting Citizens and Companies Press Release Database, [Online] Available:Â   http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_CJE-13-56_en.htm [27 August, 2014]. Rodger, B. MacCulloch, A. and Galloway, J. (2009) Cases and Materials on UK and EC Competition Law, Oxford University Press: Oxford. Kaczorowska, A. (2013) European Union Law, Routledge: London. Kennedy, T. P. (2011) European Law, Oxford University Press: Oxford. Moens, G. and Trone, J. (2010) Commercial Law of the European Union, Springer Science Business Media: London. Whish, R. (2012) Competition Law, Oxford University Press: Oxford. Cases Belgische Radio en Televisie v SV Saban (127/73) [1974] ECR 51 Case 85/76 Hoffman-La Roche v Commission [1979] ECR 461 Case C-41/90 Hofner and Elser [1991] ECR I-1979 Case 27/76, United Brands Continental BV v Commission (1978) ECR 207 Defrenne v SABENA [1974] ECR 631 Foster v British Gas (1990) C-188/89 Van Gend en Loos v Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen Case 26/62, [1963] ECR 1 Walrave v Association Union Internationale (36/74) [1974] ECR 1405; [1975] 1 CMLR 320

Biography of Wilbur Wright, Aviation Pioneer

Biography of Wilbur Wright, Aviation Pioneer Wilbur Wright (1867-1912) was one half of the aviation pioneering duo known as the Wright Brothers. Together with his brother Orville Wright, Wilbur Wright invented the first airplane to make the first manned and powered flight possible. Wilbur Wrights Early Life Wilbur Wright was born on April 16, 1867, in Millville, Indiana. He was the third child of Bishop Milton Wright and Susan Wright. After his birth, the family moved to Dayton, Ohio. Bishop Wright has in the habit of bringing his sons souvenirs from his church travels. One such souvenir was a whirling top toy, that sparked the Wright Brothers lifelong interest in flying machines. In 1884, Wilbur completed high school and the next year he attended special classes in Greek and trigonometry, however, a hockey accident and his mothers illness and death kept Wilbur Wright from finishing his college education. The Wright Brothers Early Career Ventures   On March 1, 1889, Orville Wright began publishing the short-lived West Side News, a weekly newspaper for West Dayton. Wilbur Wright was the editor and Orville was the printer and publisher. All his life, Wilbur Wright teamed with his brother Orville to develop various businesses and enterprises. Among the Wright Brothers various enterprises were a printing firm and a bicycle shop. Both of these ventures showcased their mechanical aptitude, business sense, and originality. The Pursuit of Flight Wilbur Wright was inspired by the work of German glider Otto Lilienthal, which  led to his desire to fly and his belief that manned flight was possible. Wilbur Wright read everything available on the then-new science of aviation- including all the Smithsonians technical papers on aviation- to study the projects of other aviators. Wilbur Wright thought of a novel solution to the problem of flight, which he described as a simple system that twisted, or warped the wings of a biplane, causing it to roll right and left. Wilbur Wright made history with the first-ever heavier-than-air, manned, powered flight in 1903. Wilbur Wrights Writings In 1901, Wilbur Wrights article, Angle of Incidence, was published in the Aeronautical Journal, and Die Wagerechte Lage Wahrend des Gleitfluges, was published in Ilustrierte Aeronautische Mitteilungen. These were the Wright Brothers first published writings on aviation. The same year, Wilbur Wright gave a speech to the Western Society of Engineers on the Wright Brothers gliding experiments. The Wrights First Flight On December 17, 1903,  Wilbur and Orville Wright made the first free, controlled, and sustained flights in a power-driven, heavier-than-air machine. The first flight was piloted by Orville Wright at 10:35 a.m., the plane stayed twelve seconds in the air and flew 120 feet. Wilbur Wright piloted the longest flight that day in the fourth test, fifty-nine seconds in the air and 852 feet. Wilbur Wrights Death In 1912 Wilbur Wright died after suffering from typhoid fever.

Reading Comprehension for Beginners - My Office

Reading Comprehension for Beginners - My Office Read the paragraph which describes my office. Pay special attention to the use of prepositions in the reading selection. Youll find useful vocabulary and quizzes below to test your understanding.   My Office Like most offices, my office is a place where I can concentrate on my work and feel comfortable at the same time. Of course, I have all the necessary equipment on my desk. I have the telephone next to the fax machine on the right side of my desk. My computer is in the center of my desk with the monitor directly in front of me. I have a comfortable office chair to sit on and some pictures of my family between the computer and the telephone. In order to help me read, I also have a lamp near my computer which I use in the evening if I work late. There is plenty of paper in one of the cabinet drawers. There are also staples and a stapler, paper clips, highlighters, pens and erasers in the other drawer. I like to use highlighters to remember important information. In the room, there is a comfortable armchair and a sofa to sit on. I also have a low table in front of the sofa on which there are some industry magazines. Useful Vocabulary armchair - a comfortable, padded chair that has arms on which to rest your armscabinet - a piece of furniture that holds objectsdesk - a piece of furniture on which you write or use your computer, fax, etc.drawer - a space which opens for you to store things inequipment - items used to complete tasksfurniture - a word referring to all the places to sit, work, store things, etc.highlighter - a bright pen with a thick tip which is usually green or bright yellowlaptop - a computer you can carry with youpaperclip - a metal clip that holds pieces of paper togetherstapler - a piece of equipment used to staple papers together Multiple-Choice Comprehension Check Questions Choose the correct answer based on the reading.   1. What do I need to do in my office?   A) relax B) concentrate C) study D) read magazines 2. Which piece of equipment do I NOT have on my desk?   A) fax B) computer C) lamp D) photocopier 3. Where are the pictures of my family located?   A) on the wall B) next to the lamp C) between the computer and the telephone D) near the fax 4. I use the lamp to read:   A) all day B) never C) in the morning D) in the evening 5. Where do I keep the paperclips?   A) on the desk B) next to the lamp C) in a cabinet drawer D) next to the telephone 6. What do I keep on the table in front of the sofa?   A) company reports B) fashion magazines C) books D) industry magazines True or False Decide if the statements are true or false based on the reading.   I work late every night.  I use highlighters to help me remember important information.  I keep reading materials that are not related to my job in the office.  I dont need a lamp to help me read.It is important to me to feel comfortable at work. Using Prepositions Fill each gap with a preposition used in the reading. I have the telephone _____ the fax machine on the right side of my desk.The monitor is directly _____ me.I sit _____ my comfortable office chair.I also have a lamp _____ my computer.I put the stapler, pens, and erasers ______ the drawer.I have a table _____ the sofa.  There are lots of magazines _____ the table. Answers Multiple-Choice B - concentrateD - photocopierC - between the computer and the telephoneD - in the eveningC - in a cabinet drawerD - industry magazines Answers True or False   FalseTrueFalseFalseTrue Answers Using Prepositions next toin front ofonnearinin front ofon Continue reading with these appropriate reading comprehension selections.

Special education needs in Warnock Report Essay

Special education needs in Warnock Report - Essay Example Mostly the government’s rules and regulations are designed according to the physical environment and the physical activities of human beings. The same applies in the education system too; as the policies on education are objected to meet the physical and cultural requirements of the children. Resultantly, such objectives are certain to create a huge gap between the psychological requirements of children and the ongoing education practices. Normally, children are emotional in their nature due to the need of dependency; as a result they are more comfortable with emotional attachment. Their nature, personality and the learning ability is structured depending upon the emotional love and affection they entertain in their day to day life. Apparently, the learning ability varies in every child due to the variations in the environment they are grown up. Therefore, the equal standard education plan may be applicable to a mass of student but not to those who are having disability in lea rning skill. Warnock report came up in the United Kingdom as a revolution in education, advocating for the need of special education system for the children with learning disabilities. The report was against the education system for treating child education with an objective approach. The report talks against the deliberative formalities in teaching styles. The report laid foundations for the introduction of statements of special educational need in England and Wales in 1980 and the statement process has been considered as one of the most major changes in education system of the United Kingdom. 1944 act on education system had been designed to provide education to the children on the basis of age, aptitude and ability. Disabled Children were segregated in eleven several categories of handicap. That included educationally subnormal, and delicate as well as blind. However, the then general viewpoint of the education system was that the child should fit the school rather than the schoo l fit the child (Warnock, 1978). In the year 1974, Warnock Committee chaired by Mary Warnock, was formed to design a new system of education; the committee came up with Warnock Report in 1978, which was objected to look at the needs of children requiring special education. The report concluded that there are 20% children who require special educational need but 2% among them need the special support and the remaining 18% of student can be given care with mainstream school’s facilities. Finally the report recommended that there should be dedicated provision for children with SEN which would be able to protect the 2% and ensure that they are not deprived of the provision (Warnock, 1979). This Report brought another educational reform in action that was Education Act 1981, which added the responsibility to the local education authorities to subjectively recognize and assess pupils with SEN and decide the suitable provision to apply on them. The 1981 Act, afterward successfully s urpassed by Education act 1993 and 1996, which bound the state to announce a code of practice on special education need ordering all the local education authority to go as per the SEN provision and made it an obligatory responsibility for all concerned bodies including the school administration to give special care to the children with special education need. The education act of 1981 also allowed the parents of the SEN children to make an appeal to the LEA and to the state government in

Recycling Literature review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Recycling - Literature review Example Although recycling markets differ in developed and developing countries due to technology, information, and market power, one thing is sure: Government intervention and citizen’s cooperation are proven necessary to make recycling successful. Today, recycling, specifically plastic bag recycling has continually gaining much support. Understanding Recycling Although oftentimes used interchangeably, recycling differs from reuse. Reuse does not involve remanufacturing; whereas recycling, Geiser (2001: 219) defined, is collecting used materials for reprocessing and remanufacturing. Materials are recycled either through primary or secondary recycling, depending on the quality of the product material. Materials minimally degraded go through primary recycling producing similar product – Used aluminium cans can be recycled to make new aluminium cans (Miller & Spoolman 2011: G13). Materials almost wasted go through secondary recycling producing different product of lower quality ( Geiser 2001: 219) – Used tires can be recycled into mats, shoes, safety surfaces, and many more (Saddleback 2009: 54). Recycling is an ancient practice and has continued ever since for almost the same reason – conservation. Though, conservation today is understood from a different framework. Before, people recycle mainly for personal economy (Geiser 2001: 217-218). Today, recycling is no longer a choice but a social responsibility for environmental reasons. The mounting solid waste around us threatens the earth’s life and human existence that recycling and tempering waste generation has to be taken is much needed (Purcell 1998, p. 190). The trend for recycling has started in the ‘70s with the greening of society and has been taken seriously in the ‘90s (D’Souza 2005: 2), seeing it more as an economic activity rather than a moral obligation (Walker & Desrochers 1999: 74) Truly, recycling today is making a big market worldwide, especially in dev eloped and developing countries, perhaps because incentives are given for recycling businesses, since their need for recycling is greater, as consumerism is high and wastes are mounting – Every year the UK alone dumps 24M tonnes of recyclable materials (Birmingham Post 2009: 10). Particularly in OECD countries, recycling has become an important economic sector with more or less 1.5 million workforces, a $160 billion turnover every year, and more than 500 million tonnes physical throughput. (OECD 2006: 16) While in the United States, various states provide financial incentives for recycling businesses to manage wastes profitably (Gordon 1993: 30). Factors differentiating markets for recyclable materials are identified: â€Å"information failures, technological expertise, and market power† (OECD 2006: 15). Recycling newspapers and water bottles is an old practice, but recycling other items like cellphones, batteries, light bulbs, and others is not yet commonly understood (Holmes 2010: 38). Even for used plastic bags, which though have an available market (Koontz 1996: 42), a better technology for its recycling has yet to be seen. Fortunately, the Institute for Mining and Minerals, University of Kentucky claims that waste plastics can be recycled into commercially usable oil in a quick, efficient, environmentally-friendly process. (Society for the Advancement of Education 1994: 12) Importance of Recycling The importance of recycling are identified and ranked as follows: (1) recycling of resources, (2) saving forest resources, (3) preservation of global

Dominican Hair Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Dominican Hair - Essay Example These groups include the; Taà ­nos (who are the Indigenous group), the Spanish (who were the colonizers), and the Africans (brought majorly as slaves into the country). Nonetheless, the Dominican nation has long ignored its heritage’s African part, in its place describing itself as â€Å"Not black,† This is so, even as people accept that almost everyone has some Black heritage and ancestry. This whole idea of national identity presents exacting challenges for Dominican immigrants to the United States, who are over and over again perceived by Americans as black and forced to negotiate for new ethnical and racial landscape. According to Ginetta E. B. Candelario  Ã¢â‚¬Å"the Dominican nation has all along selected to disregard the African customs and traditions†. She says that, the social and racial dynamics of the Dominican identity is majorly promoted by staff, customers and owners of salons. This is in particular with consideration to the concepts of African Vs European hair, further categorized as â€Å"bad† and â€Å"good† hair respectively. Candelario shows how clients and staff of salons had preferences to certain hair styles which were in photograph form in books. This is an exacting proof and confirmation of the anti- black preferences by the Dominican, and appraisal of the whites. In spite of this, what these women found as being most gorgeous and eye-catching were the people whom they analyze as having the signs of ethnic and cultural mixture connected to Spanish-speaking countries, and in particular those of Latin America. Candelario does well in trying to contradict the entrenched whiteness preference by showing various occasions when these preferences were disregarded, as well as by showing that there was an existence of diverse sorts of whiteness. Candelario shows that, Salons were the principal places where women were encouraged to internalize and endorse certain manners. The manner of seeing and doing things through racial

Women Issues and Prostitution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Women Issues and Prostitution - Essay Example The misconceptions, which follow, are many towards the rights of women. Women indulge in prostitution are sometimes considered to be "exclusive" of this society irrespective of the fact that they are the mirrors of those dilemmas which we ignore or which we feel shame to admit to ourselves. Society should consider and face this dilemma in the form of "prostitution". We will discuss some of the most common problems faced by the women of Canada today. Because of the pervasive and deeply rooted attitudes toward the legitimacy of sexual coercion in our society, our conceptions of normal male and female derive from taking coerced sexuality as the natural standard. And given that this is true, it is scarcely surprising that it should be considered to be normal for men not to like women at least to some extent, since they must perceive women as being misers and hoarders of a commodity they are led to believe they desperately desire and need. Nor is it surprising that they should identify themselves as 'true men' in accordance with the degree to which they are aggressive and dominant. Aggressive and dominant men get what they want; it is merely the forms of aggressiveness and dominance which vary, and is only when the forms resorted to involve the use or threat of violence that we are prepared to call it 'rape' and to punish those who commit it. (Schlesinger, 1977) Let us consider some of the cases of women in this aspect. One woman in this study who complained of rape, a young woman classified as 'idle,' and who was 'known as' a frequenter of the old Yorkville area of Toronto, disagreed about the standard. She felt that the man 'had gone too far,' whereas his reply was 'that he had used no more force than is usual for males during the preliminaries.' In another case, again involving a young woman, the woman rather sagely remarked that 'usually guys stop when you tell them to. This one didn't.' It is significant too that in both of these cases the men were middle-class, one a businessman and the other a semi-professional, and the women involved failed to conform to the stereotyped image of the 'real victim.' If the cases had come to trial, they are not the sort of men likely to have been judged to have resorted to unacceptable tactics, or who would be sent to jail for what they did because the women involved were not 'real victims.' These men, in common with most accused rapists, did not see anything wrong in what they had done. What the victim experienced as rape, they believed to be seduction. However, it is unbelievable that virtually none of these offenders believed that they were doing anything wrong; they did not see themselves as acting any differently from other men in society, and did not see, and resisted seeing, themselves as men who had broken the law. Almost all of them either saw, or went to quite incredible lengths to see, their behavior as 'normal' and acceptable. The extreme case simply believes everything he does in relation to women is acceptable, and after that there are subtler shadings in

DQ1charwill and DQ2. DD Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

DQ1charwill and DQ2. DD - Essay Example When selecting dimensions of job satisfaction, it is essential to be vigilant since it may contribute to either retaining or sending away the employees. An example of a dimension is the satisfaction with the fulfillment of job. This is a sense of accomplishment that the employees seem to have possessed after using their skills maximally and it further motivates them to put more effort (Stewart, 2012). As a result, it contributes to the employees` retention. The writer portrays a good character towards the employees because in his company, individuals get challenged constantly and have the freedom of giving their opinions for the better of the company. An example of a job satisfaction dimension that does not contribute to the retention of employees is `satisfaction with a group.’ Due to the fact that most employees prefer personal work, when placed in to groups, the outcome at many times affects the company negatively because of different personality (Hellriegel, & Slocum, 2011 ). There are other additional several steps or methods that the company may employ to ensure that high-quality employees are retained. Firstly, the company can retain employees of high quality by availing favorable opportunities to them that may help them the earn more (Fannie, 2012). Another step is to appreciate the ethical practices, conducting proper communication with them and adopting an acceptable culture within the organization. In addition, job satisfaction also has other dimensions such as hygiene and motivation that also might help the company to retain the

Women Issues and Prostitution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Women Issues and Prostitution - Essay Example The misconceptions, which follow, are many towards the rights of women. Women indulge in prostitution are sometimes considered to be "exclusive" of this society irrespective of the fact that they are the mirrors of those dilemmas which we ignore or which we feel shame to admit to ourselves. Society should consider and face this dilemma in the form of "prostitution". We will discuss some of the most common problems faced by the women of Canada today. Because of the pervasive and deeply rooted attitudes toward the legitimacy of sexual coercion in our society, our conceptions of normal male and female derive from taking coerced sexuality as the natural standard. And given that this is true, it is scarcely surprising that it should be considered to be normal for men not to like women at least to some extent, since they must perceive women as being misers and hoarders of a commodity they are led to believe they desperately desire and need. Nor is it surprising that they should identify themselves as 'true men' in accordance with the degree to which they are aggressive and dominant. Aggressive and dominant men get what they want; it is merely the forms of aggressiveness and dominance which vary, and is only when the forms resorted to involve the use or threat of violence that we are prepared to call it 'rape' and to punish those who commit it. (Schlesinger, 1977) Let us consider some of the cases of women in this aspect. One woman in this study who complained of rape, a young woman classified as 'idle,' and who was 'known as' a frequenter of the old Yorkville area of Toronto, disagreed about the standard. She felt that the man 'had gone too far,' whereas his reply was 'that he had used no more force than is usual for males during the preliminaries.' In another case, again involving a young woman, the woman rather sagely remarked that 'usually guys stop when you tell them to. This one didn't.' It is significant too that in both of these cases the men were middle-class, one a businessman and the other a semi-professional, and the women involved failed to conform to the stereotyped image of the 'real victim.' If the cases had come to trial, they are not the sort of men likely to have been judged to have resorted to unacceptable tactics, or who would be sent to jail for what they did because the women involved were not 'real victims.' These men, in common with most accused rapists, did not see anything wrong in what they had done. What the victim experienced as rape, they believed to be seduction. However, it is unbelievable that virtually none of these offenders believed that they were doing anything wrong; they did not see themselves as acting any differently from other men in society, and did not see, and resisted seeing, themselves as men who had broken the law. Almost all of them either saw, or went to quite incredible lengths to see, their behavior as 'normal' and acceptable. The extreme case simply believes everything he does in relation to women is acceptable, and after that there are subtler shadings in

Differences between the old version of the international commercial Essay

Differences between the old version of the international commercial terms (2000)and the new ones (2011) - Essay Example Defining the changes which have been made between the different years and associating this with the terms regulated by the ICC, or international chamber of commerce organization, can also redefine what is now expected when working with trade agreements across nations. The current changes which are being initiated are based on redefining the terms of trade, specifically to open different regions while protecting businesses that are associated in different regions of the world. The purpose of this research paper will be to redefine the amount of supply and demand between regions while creating a different set of terms and agreements with the new international commercial terms. It has been noted that a large variety of changes have been made between the year 2000 and 2011. These are being redefined to open the trade of import and export and to protect businesses with arbitration and mediation. More important, these are changing the way in which different businesses associate with legalities, arbitration and mediation in various countries. By examining the redefinition of terms, the paper will be able to redefine what the terms may lead to as well as how this is changing the outlooks that are associated with business imports and exports among various countries. Import and export terms have been growing since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, specifically because both quality and quantity can be maintained through basic manufacturing agreements. To ensure that the export and import terms are met and qualified, legalities and representation of both sellers and buyers have also been noted. The first representation was in 1936 with the development of the International Chamber of Commerce, or ICC. The main objective of the ICC was to regulate trade and to ensure that there were fair agreements which were made across national borders. The development of the ICC led to the Inco terms, which were rules and agreements which

Calculating the Young Modulus of Constanton Essay Example for Free

Calculating the Young Modulus of Constanton Essay Introduction Constanton is a copper-nickel alloy mainly used in the for its electrical resistance properties. It has a high resistance which is constant over a wide range of temperatures. I am going to find out the Youngs modulus of this wire and observe its behaviour. Apparatus * Constanton Wire * G-Clamp x2 * Pulley * Hanging weights * Ruler * Micrometer * Small marker flag * Wooden end blocks * Sponge Blocks Underlying Theory When a sample is deformed by a force, the deformation is proportional to the magnitude of the force. This is shown by Hookes Law where: Force is equal to a stiffness constant (k) times the extension (e).The force is proportional to the extension. For a sample we can also calculate stress and strain: Where stress is equal to force (F) divided by area (A) and strain is equal to extension (e) divided by original length (l). When you plot these on a Stress-strain graph it proves Hookes law when it is straight line but as soon as the graph curves, the sample is showing plastic deformation as it is past the elastic limit. Using this graph we can work out the Youngs Modulus of a sample which is: This is also measured in Nm-2 or Pascals (Pa). It can also be calculated by working out the gradient on the stress-strain graph. When a wire obeys Hookes Law it deforms elastically. This means that when the load is removed, the wire returns back to its initial length. The atoms in the wire move small distances from their equilibrium positions but then return. After the elastic limit the wire starts to deform plastically. The atoms move within the structure so they cannot return when the load is removed. Measurements Throughout the experiment these measurements will need to be taken and observed: * Stress Force and surface area * Strain Initial length and the extension * Youngs modulus * Percentage error error of each piece of equipment * Hookes law (F=ke) Method To measure the Youngs modulus of constanton I will: 1) Set up the equipment as shown. 2) Choose a suitable section of wire from the real that doesnt appear bent, twisted or deformed. Measure the diameter of the wire with a micrometer before attaching it to the weights. 3) Attach a marker flag so the extension can be measured. 4) Start the experiment by measuring the initial length of wire and adding the 100g weights and measuring the new length each time. 5) Record your results in a table and plot a stress-strain graph using these results. Weight (g) Mass (N) Length (mm) Stress (Nm-2/Pa) Strain 6) Repeat the experiment three times or until you get a set of similar results. Results Experiment 1 In the first attempt at calculating the youngs modulus of constanton i used 0.44mm diameter wire with an initial length of 500mm. I measured both in millimetres because this would avoid converting units when calculating the strain of the wire (e/l). The wire only extended by 1mm when 1700g were added to it so I abandoned the experiment and changed my method slightly to get more extension for mass. Experiment 2 I changed the diameter of wire used to 0.23mm which is almost half the thickness than before. By using thinner wire we should see more extension for the amount of weight added so we can measure it with a ruler more easily. The initial length of wire was also 500mm. When i carried out the experiment the wire proved to be too thin because as only 500g was added the wire started to show rapid plastic deformation and continued to extend by roughly 6% (30mm) of its original length before the wire broke. Experiment 3 I changed the diameter again so I could record more conclusive results. I used a diameter of wire in between the diameters of the first two experiment (0.31mm) and an initial length of 500mm. I still couldnt record too accurate results as the wire didnt extend enough so I could only plot three points on a graph before it showed plastic behaviour. Further experimental changes were needed. Experiment 4 This time I changed the initial length of wire used to 800mm from 500mm. This would amplify the extension so I could measure it with the ruler because the rate of extension would increase and also the amount of extension would increase. By increasing the initial length of wire it would also decrease the percentage error in the measurement of the wire with the ruler. The percentage error goes from 0.1% to 0.063%. Experiment 5 This was a repeat to check the accuracy of experiment 4. In this experiment i encountered a few problems. The knot holding the weight hangers on kept slipping and the results found did not match the pervious pattern. Experiment 6 This was my third repeat of experiment 4. This gave me a fairly similar set of results to experiment 4. Due to time restrictions, no more experiments could be carried out to do a third repeat. Calculations * Using the diameter to work out the surface area. Let x = diameter X 10-3 = to change from millimetres to metres 2 = to change diameter into radius Then substitute it into the formula for the area of a circle. * Change grams into Newtons for force. Which is equivalent to 10 * Changing Pascals (Pa) into Megapascals (MPa) * Working out gradient to find the Youngs Modulus. Graphs To plot the graphs i only plotted points where the wire extended by a millimetre because the wire was extending between those points but I could not take sensitive enough measurements with a ruler. To plot the graphs i also changed Stress from Pascals (Pa) to Megapascals (MPa) to make it easier to plot on the graph. I also used the graphs to work out the Youngs Modulus of the Constanton by finding the gradient of the graph before it reached the elastic limit. Inaccuracies Here are some factors that may have caused some inaccuracies in my measurements: * The wire may contain impurities that change the way the wire behaves. This cannot be helped. * By attaching a pointer you can affect the sample by restricting the way it behaves. To avoid causing too many inaccuracies use as thin a pointer as possible so there is as little as possible touching the sample. * The pulley wheel may cause friction but this is the most sensible way of converting horizontal movement into vertical. * There also may be bends or variation in cross sectional area in the wire. To minimise the risk of this, dont use the first few metres of wire until you find a section that looks roughly undamaged. Percentage Errors The main source of percentage error is in the measurement of the diameter taken by the micrometer even though the micrometer is accurate to 0.005mm and the ruler is only accurate to 0.5mm. In experiments 4, 5, and 6: % error of diameter = [ 0.005 / 0.31] x 100 = 1.6% % error of length = [ 0.5 / 800 ] x 100 = 0.06% Other sources of percentage error are: Diameter of the wire which is an example of uncertainty in the measurements. Actual mass of the weights which is an example of systematic error. Conclusion Using experiments 4 and 6 I was able to work out my youngs modulus of Constanton by finding the gradient of the initial straight part of my graph. Experiment 4 = 280GPa Experiment 6 = 240GPa The real value of the youngs modulus is 162GPa so I am out by approximately a factor of two. This is not too far away from the true value considering the huge uncertainties involved with my measurement technique. To improve my accuracy I would either have to improve my measurement techniques or change my method completely. In conclusion, the method was affective for demonstrating the affects of Hookes law but not for measuring accurately the youngs modulus of constanton. Modifications in the Method * Attaching the pointer to the pulley stops the pointer coming into contact with the sample of wire which could obstruct deformation but if the wire extends more than the pulley can measure then the experiment will not work. * Illuminate the pointer to produce a magnified shadow of the movement. This makes it easier to see movement and allows for more accurate measurement however you need to calculate and calibrate magnification. * Use wire that isnt wound round a real because it distorted the start point of my curve. A typical youngs modulus curve starts at the origin but mine doesnt because first few hundred grams was used to apply tension to the wire to bend out the curves.

History of the Malacca Sultanate

History of the Malacca Sultanate The Malacca Sultanate was a powerful maritime and commercial empire that Shaped the political, social and cultural systems of the Malay Peninsula. Parameswara (1401 to 1511) was the founder of Malacca. He was a fugitive prince from the Palembang in Sumatra, and attack Palembang. Parameswara fled to the island of Temasik with his loyal company of 30 orang laut (sea people). After eight days in Temasik, Parameswara killed the local chief and usurped as lord over the simple fisher folk of Temasik. Therefore, he runs to Malacca. Under his ruling, in 1414, Parameswara embraced Islam, and change his name to Megat Iskandar Shah, married to a Muslim princess from Pasai, Sumatra. Because of this it attracted Muslim traders to come to Malacca port and international too. He also maintain the good relation with Ming China, he send a mission after mission to Peking in1415, 1416 and 1418. Parameswara, laid a great stress on the element of all event and the political experiences which underwent from broader viewpoint and historical vision in the Malay historical and political development all in Malay Archipelago. Malacca has they becoming a cosmopolitan free port that valued money above any nations of cultural imperialism. Due to the successfully founded and established a seat of power in Malacca around 1399/1400. Upon his death in 1424, Megat Iskandar Shah was succeeded by his son Sri Maharaja (1424-1444) . Sultanate of Malacca Reign Parameswara 1394 to 1414 Sultan Megat Iskandar Syah 1414 to 1424 Seri Maharaja ( Raja Tengah ) or Sultan Muhammad Syah 1424 to 1444 Sultan Abu Syahid 1445 to 1456 Sultan Muzaffar Syah 1446 to 1456 Sultan Mansur Syah 1456 to 1477 Sultan Alauddin Riayat Syah 1477 to 1488 Sultan Mahmud Syah 1488 to 1511 Sultan Muzaffa Shah ( 1446-1456) the son of Sri Maharaja and grandson of Megat Iskandar Shah alias Parameswara, ruling the Malacca throne in 1446 succeeding his elder brother , Raja Ibrahim. He was the first to use Arabian title of Sultan, and formulate the Malacca Laws known as Risalah Hukum Kanun in protect the sovereignty and prosperity of Malacca. Raja Kechil Besar (Sultan Muhammed Syah, 1424-1444) played a major role in developing and improving the ceremonial and the administrative system. He re-organized the royal administration. In Malacca the Bendahara immediately beneath the sultan operated as Chief Minister with Temenggong as Senior Judges below, followed by Special Magistrates or Syahbandar. The main four communities in Malacca, Muslim Gujaratis , Hindu Tamiuls , Islamised Javanese and Chinese each a Syahbandar. The Syahbandar have two roles, the Chinese Syahbandar will assisting the vessel in trades when foreign ship arrived from China. So as the Shahbandar looked after h is respective community. Syahbandar will need to responsible for arming, organizing and commanding their community for Sultan. Two offices or ministers were created at this time the Temenggung and Sen Bija Diraja is to the rapid developments that were taking place in the town and society of Malacca. The office of the Laksamana was established during the reign of Sultan Mansur Shah (1456-1477). It was originally designated by the Emperor of Majapahit. The duties and jurisdiction of the Laksamana were similar those of the Seri Bija Diraja. As the position of the Laksamana became more firmly established and more influential in Malacca, the status of the Sen Bija Diraja gradually declined. Beside the four Ministers, there were eight senior directors, all bearing the title Sr. Under them were sixteen junior directors with the title Raja. At the bottom of the hierarchy were thirty two government offices that assist the Minister to carrying out their duties. This administration system was implemented by all the states in Malay Peninsula that were united under Sultanate Malacca. Malacca was as a major player in the spice trade, serving as a gateway between the Spice Islands and high-paying Eurasian markets. The rise of Malacca was the monsoon winds that enabled Arabian and Indian traders from the west to travel to China in the east and vice versa. It was also the center of Islam in the eastern sphere, were also sent by the Sultan to spread Islam to other communities in the Malay Archipelago, such as in Java, Borneo, and the Philippines. Most of South East Asia at that time was Hindu. The Sultanates most important regional rivals were Siam in the north and the declining Majapahit Empire in the south. Majapahit was not able to control or effectively compete with Malacca within the archipelago. Siam on the other hand attacked Malacca three times, but all attacks were repelled. At the same time, Malacca had a good relationship with the Ming government of China; Parameswara had met the Chinese emperor in China to receive a Letter of Friendship, hence making Malacca the first foreign kingdom to attain such treatment. In 1409, the sultan paid tribute to the Chinese emperor to ask for protection against Siam. This Sino-Malacca relationship helped the attacks from Siam from further threatening Malacca. The empire of Malay Kingdom of Malacca ended in 1511 after the Portuguese attack under the rule of Sultan Mansur Shah (1459 1477) because of several external and internal factors. He is a weak leader and paid less attention to the administration. Due to this matter, he often in-need of power during his ruling. Thus, after Tun Perak died in 1498, to be succeeded by his brother Tun Puteh also a weak leader. After the death of Tun Perak the Chief Minister, the Malay Kingdom of Malacca lacked of efficient leader. The bribing, slander and high taxes forced the merchant to change their attention to other ports. The citizen of Malacca become split in to factions and disunited. Tun Mutahir is a weak leader that caused the Malays to become hostile towards the Indian-Muslim. Malacca State continued to flourish but the court was now thronged and dominated by Tamil merchants. Tun Mutahir and Tun Ali put to death, betrayed by Kitul and Raja Mandaliar, an indian native. Chief Minister Tepok ( Tun Peraks son)was appointed by Sultan after Tun Mutahir death. But it unrest by the administration group due to his age and continued the misunderstanding and disagree groups The external factor is the discovery of Cape of Good Hope in South Africa by Bartholomew Diaz in 1488, easier to sail from West to East. As a result, is easier for Portuguese to attack Malacca. Malacca become weak and fall prey to their enemies due to weak leaders, bribery and corruption, betrayal among minister and disunity among the people. Is become more critical when the Portuguese, led by Alfonso dAlbuquefrque attack Malacca and finally over took Malacca in 1511. 2.a) Starting this year on 16th, September 2010 will be a public holiday for Malaysia it is according to our Prime Minister Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak said Sabah and Sarawak, which joined Malaysia in 1963 and the formation of Malaysia as an independent country was a very important moment in history. He also added, Malaysia Day would be celebrated with events that would foster closer unity, understanding between the different races and community success and achievement through sports, social culture and arts, to spur the OneMalaysia spirit. (http://thestar.com.my/news). Based on history, in January 1956 the chief minister Tunku Abdul Rahman led a Merdeka (independence) mission to London where, in February, agreement was reached with the colonial secretary bringing self-government into effect and envisaging full independence for the Federation within the Commonwealth by 31 August 1957. On 16, September, 1963 was Malaysia is an independent sovereign state Federation of Malaya with the merge of Singapore, North Borneo (renamed Sabah) and Sarawak. Before that, on 1946 the dominant political in Malaya was the United Malays National Organization (UMNO) to strive independence from Great Britain and protest British proposal to grant rights to different ethnic group in Malaya (UMNO). Thats lead to dominant the nations politics of independent Malaya from 1957 through 1963. At independent, 55 % of Malayas population was Malay, 35% ethnic Chinese and 10% Indian. The federation consisted 11 states , Penang and Melaka were former British colonies, and the nine remain states each is a hereditary monarch ( called Sultan).Under the federation , Malays maintained their privileges ( official language and Islam ) and for the non-Malays gained citizenship. The stated every five years the sultan s elect one of their numbers to serve as Yang-di-Pertuan Agong . The Alliance Party , with Malayan Chinese Association (MCA) and the Malayan Indian Congress (MIC) was formed due to without cooperation of the people of Malayan. The new government consisted mostly Malays, with the smaller number of Chinese and Indian. Sabah and Sarawak, with their population of Malay and Indian to balance the Chinese population from Singapore. (Marshall Cavendish Corporation,pg1215) Although the same year there were the Indonesia and Philippines protested the creation of Malaysia. President Sukarno (1901-1970) adopted a policy of konfrontasi (confrontation) and from April 1963, Indonesian infiltrated Sabah and Sarawak. The formation of Malaysia, Singapore and North Borneo unilaterally declared independence from the United Kingdom on August 31, 1963, thus coinciding with the sixth anniversary of the Malayan independence. b) Brunei to opt out, due to the failure to carry out the proposal to come together to share within a new federation that differences in opinion and reluctant on the part of Brunei and Kuala Lumpur. Political power passed in the elections of September 1962 to the Peoples Party, and to maintain that before the move towards Malaysia was made here should be openly of the three fundamental reason such as the speeding of independent, the strengthening of the walls of defense against the communist threat and lastly the provision of help to the less develops parts. These territories under the Sultan of Brunei as constitutional ruler. A revolt within the party tried to bring about this state by force, but it was speedily repressed. Brunei claims that were conditions for joining, touched on the following issue: i) the number of seats in the Legislature and in the Parliament ii) the control on oil and other minerals iii) monetary autonomy iv) Bruneis earlier investment v) method of taxation vi) authority in the area of education and welfare vii) matters of religion viii) citizenship ix) the security of Brunei ( which needs to be guaranteed ) x) the position of the sultan and the status of Brunei within Malaysia Nevertheless, Brunei ultimately decided to remain outside the federation, possibly because with its small population and large riches in the form of oil it was unwilling to share its prosperity. Also, the Sultan of Bruneis status within the proposed federation was called into question, and this matter carried considerable political weight against joining. For Singapore, is a second to Malaya in population and more than three-quarters Chinese in composition, threatened to upset the communal balance on which Malayan politics and government had no depended. Two years after the formed Malay and Chinese in Malay and experienced dangerous polarization. Singapores leaders became involved in the politics of the Malay Peninsula, notably in the 1964 federal elections in Peoples Actions Party (PAP) was one of the contesting parties. Lee Kuan Yew and several PAP leaders belittle MCA, and saying the MCA leaders lacked caliber and over friendly with UMNO. Lee Kuan Yew and PAP was in interpreted by MCA and UMNO as PAP tactic for taking over role for MCA in interests of Chinese community. An Alliance leader regards PAPs criticism of the MCA as a weak party and tends to destroy the good understanding within the Alliance. Lee Kuan Yew have started his Malaysian for Malaysia campaign that no community in Malaysia. On May 1965, even highlighted Chinese u nity against the Malay under Jaafar Albar (UMNO) campaign Malays Unite . In June to August,to find solution but Singapore made the situation worse . On 7, August 1965, Lee Kuan Yew and Tunku Abdul Rahman signed on the separation agreement and passed the Separation Act from Parliament. On 9th, August 1965, Singapore officially left Malaysia.